Beyond Feelings
A Guide to Critical Thinking
9 edition-----Vincent Ryan Ruggiero
為什么這是一本好書？
因為這是一本李笑來推薦的書
因為這是一本經典書，該書最初出版于1975年，2011年出版了其第九版，作者文森特·魯吉羅是美國紐約州立大學德里校區榮譽退休教授，是國際公認的強調思維教學在教育中核心地位的運動先驅。
人們對事物的認知往往停留在感性的階段，但是這種認知經常是不正確的。如何用理性的思維對事物獲得相對準確的認知，或者說如何來探究真理，簡而言之，如何正確的思考，本書告訴你怎么做。
本書的基本框架
The book has three main sections. The first, “The Context,” will help you understand such important concepts as individuality,critical thinking, truth, knowledge, opinion, evidence, and argument and overcome attitudes and ideas that obstruct critical thinking. The second section,“The Pitfalls,” will teach you to recognize and avoid the most common errors in thinking. The third section, “A Strategy,” will help you acquire the various skills used in addressing problems and issues. This section includes tips on identifying and overcoming your personal intellectual weaknesses as well as techniques for becoming more observant, clarifying issues,conducting inquiries, evaluating evidence, analyzing other people’s views, and making sound judgments.
這本書共分三部分，一是基本概念，先幫你理清概念和定義，例如個人意識、思考、真理、知道、觀點，這些詞的定義是什么，這些詞對批判性思考有什么影響，如何克服他們。
二是誤區，告訴你思考中的一些誤區，以及如何認識、克服他們。
三是應用技巧，幫助你建立探究問題的幾個技巧。
個人認為，第一部分和第三部分是重點，先在第一部分中了解幾個熟知的概念的真正定義，其實我們大多數人犯了定義模糊的錯誤，真正的思考，第一步應該是搞清楚定義。第三部分是要學習怎么做，什么是批判性思考的正確方式。第二部分可以有選擇的讀一讀，部分內容是第一部分和第三部分的重復。
第一部分：七大基本概念
Chapter 1 Who Are You?
The Influence of Time and Place
The Influence of Ideas
The Influence of Mass Culture
The “Science” of Manipulation
The Influence of Psychology
Becoming an Individual
Chapter 2 What Is Critical Thinking?
Mind, Brain, or Both?
Critical Thinking Defined
Characteristics of Critical Thinkers
The Role of Intuition
Basic Activities in Critical Thinking
Critical Thinking and Writing
Critical Thinking and Discussion
Avoiding Plagiarism
Chapter 3 What Is Truth?
Where Does It All Begin?
Imperfect Perception
Imperfect Memory
Deficient Information
Even the Wisest Can Err
Truth Is Discovered, Not Created
Understanding Cause and Effect
Chapter 4 What Does It Mean to Know?
Requirements of Knowing
Testing Your Own Knowledge
How We Come to Know
Why Knowing Is Difficult
A Cautionary Tale
Is Faith a Form of Knowledge?
Obstacles to Knowledge
Chapter 5 How Good Are Your Opinions?
Opinions Can Be Mistaken
Opinions on Moral Issues
Even Experts Can Be Wrong
Kinds of Errors
Informed Versus Uninformed Opinion
Forming Opinions Responsibly
Chapter 6 What Is Evidence?
Kinds of Evidence
Evaluating Evidence
What Constitutes Sufficient Evidence?
Chapter 7 What Is Argument?
The Parts of an Argument
Evaluating Arguments
More Difficult Arguments
第三部分：六項行動指南
PART THREE A Strategy
Chapter 14 Knowing Yourself
Critical Thinking Inventory
Using Your Inventory
Challenge and Reward
Chapter 15 Being Observant
Observing People
Observation in Science and Medicine
The Range of Application
Becoming More Observant
Reflecting on Your Observations
Chapter 16 Selecting an Issue
The Basic Rule: Less Is More
How to Limit an Issue
Sample Issue: Pornography
Sample Issue: Boxing
Sample Issue: Juvenile Crime
Narrowing the Issue Further
Chapter 17 Conducting Inquiry
Working with Inconclusive Results
Where to Look for Information
Keeping Focused
How Much Inquiry Is Enough?
Managing Lengthy Material
Chapter 18 Forming a Judgment
Evaluating Evidence
Evaluating Your Sources’ Arguments
Making Important Distinctions
Expressing Judgments
Chapter 19 Persuading Others
Guidelines for Persuasion
An Unpersuasive Presentation
A Persuasive Presentation
七大基本概念
一、你是誰
每個人看起來都各自不同，但其實卻受到不同因素的影響，這些影響包括5個方面。The Influence of Time and Place ，The Influence of Ideas ，The Influence of Mass Culture，The “Science” of Manipulation ，The Influence of Psychology。
首先是不同年代不同地域的人的觀念會對你產生影響。例如，關于遲到，不同國家的人對此定義其實是不同的：
“Five minutes is late but permissible for a business appointment in the U.S., but thirty minutes is normal in Arab countries. In England five to fifteen minutes is the ‘correct’ lateness for one invited to dinner; an Italian might come two hours late, an Ethiopian still later, a Javanese not at all, having accepted only to prevent his host’s losing face.”
“ 5分鐘已經算是遲到，但在美國商務會面時是可容忍的，但是，在阿拉伯國家，遲到30分鐘是正常的。在英國，一個人受邀請共進晚餐，5到1 5分鐘屬于‘恰當’的遲到時間；一個意大利人也許會遲到兩個小時；埃塞俄比亞人會更遲；爪哇人甚至根本不來，接受邀請目的僅僅是不讓主人沒面子。”
其次，你周圍人群的價值觀會影響到你。
To appreciate the influence of ideas in people’s lives,consider the series of events set in motion by an idea that was popular in psychology more than acentury ago and whose influence continues to this day—the idea that“intelligence is genetically determined and cannot be increased.”
要理解觀念在人們生活中的影響，考慮一個一個多世紀前在心理學中流行并且其影響持續至今的觀念所引發的一場運動中的系列事件--“智力是基因決定的，后天不能增加。”
第三，大眾傳媒對你的影響。你的注意力被大眾傳媒誘導，你的思維被他們牽著鼻子走，你變得毫無思考力。
Television programmers use frequent scene shifts and sensory appeals such as car crashes,violence, and sexual encounters to keep audience interest from diminishing. Then they add frequent commercial interruptions. This author has analyzed the attention shifts that television viewers are subjected to. In a dramatic program, for example, attention shifts might include camera angle changes;shifts in story line from one set of characters (or subplot) to another, or from a present scene to a past scene (flashback), or to fantasy;and shifts to “newsbreaks,” to commercial breaks, from one commercial to another, and back to the program. Also included might be shifts of attention that occur within commercials. I found as many as 78 shifts per hour, excluding the shifts within commercials. The number of shifts within commercials ranged from 6 to 54 and averaged approximately 17 per fifteen-second commercial. The total number of attention shifts came out to over 800 per hour, or over 14 perminute.
電視節目制作人經常運用頻繁的場景轉換和感官訴求（如汽車碰撞、暴力和性邂逅），以維持觀眾的興趣不減，然后頻繁地插播商業廣告。制片人分析過電視觀眾所承受的注意力轉移程度。例如，在電視劇中，注意力轉移或許包括鏡頭角度的改變；故事線索從一個情節（或陪襯情節）向另一個情節的轉變，或者從當前場景切換到過去場景（閃回），或切換到幻景，切換到“插播新聞”或商業廣告，從一個商業廣告跳到另一個商業廣告，然后回到電視節目。而且，注意力的轉移也有可能發生在商業廣告之內。我發現每小時的廣告切換多達78次，這還不包括商業廣告之內的切換。每15秒鐘的商業廣告內的切換次數從6次到54次不等，平均大約為17次。意力轉移的總次數超過了每小時800次，或每分鐘超過14次。
第四，你的思維容易被人操控。別有用心的人可以通過研究人們的心理來改變人的認知，從而輕易獲取人們的信任
research has shown that human memory can be manipulated. The way a question is asked can change the details in a person’s memory and even make a person remember something that never happened!
研究已經表明人類記憶可以被操縱。提問的方式可以改變一個人的記憶中的細節，甚至讓一個人回憶起從來沒有發生過的事情！
Of course,advertisers and people with political or social agendas are not content to stimulate emotions and/or plant ideas in our minds. They also seek to reinforce hose impressions by repeating them again and again. The more people hear aslogan or talking point, the more familiar it becomes. Before long, it becomes indistinguishable from ideas developed through careful thought
當然，廣告商和社會與政治工作者不會滿足在我們腦袋里激發情感和/或植入觀念。他們還試圖不斷重復來加深這些印象。人越是多次聽到的一個口號或“論據”，對它就會越熟悉。不久以后，它與通過深思熟慮的想法無法區分。悲哀的是，“這種包裝通常做得如此有效，以至于觀眾、聽眾或讀者根本作出自己的決定。
第五，心理上的影響。我們為人處世的態度、價值觀會受到社會大眾心理的影響。
The social and psychological theories of our time also have an impact on our beliefs. Before the past few decades, people were urged to be self-disciplined, self-critical, and self-effacing. They were urged to practice self-denial, to aspire to self-knowledge, to behave in a manner that ensured they maintained self-respect. Self-centeredness was considered a vice. “Hard work,” they were told, “leads to achievement, and that in turn produces satisfaction and self-confidence.”
我們這個時代的社會學和心理學的理論對我們的信念也產生了影響。在幾十年前，人們被督促要求自律、自我批評和自謙，要進行自我否定，要有自知之明，要以一種確保能維護其自尊的方式來行事。以自我為中心的行為被視為惡習。他們被告知：“努力工作可帶來成就，同時又可帶來自我滿足感和自信。”
總結：成為你自己，保持警覺的幾個準則。
In light of what we have discussed, we should regard individuality not as something we are born with but rather as something acquired—or, more precisely, earned. Individuality begins in the realization that it is impossible to escape being influenced by other people and by circumstance. The essence of individuality is vigilance.
鑒于我們前面已經討論的內容，我們應該注意到個性并不是我們與生俱來的，而是后天的，或者更準確地說，是掙得的東西。個性開始于意識到無法逃脫他人和環境的影響。個性的本質是警覺。
1. Treat your first reaction to any person, issue, or situation as tentative. No matter how appealing it may be,refuse to embrace it until you have examined it.
1.將對任何人，問題或情況的第一反應視為的暫定的。不管它多么吸引人，拒絕接受它，直到你已經檢驗它。
2.Decide why you reacted as you did. Consider whether you borrowed the reaction from someone else—a parent or friend, perhaps, or a celebrity or fictional character on television. If possible, determine what specific experiences conditioned you to react this way.
2.判斷你為什么會這樣做。考慮你是否模仿別人的反應--父母、朋友、名人或者電視中虛構人物。如果可能，確定什么特定經歷導致你這樣反應。
3. Think of other possible reactions you might have had to the person, issue, or situation.
3.想想你可能對人，問題或情況可能有其他可能的反應。
4.Ask yourself whether one of the other reactions is more appropriate than your first reaction. And when you answer, resist the influence of your conditioning.
4.問自己其他反應是否比你的第一反應更合適。當你回答時，排除你所在環境影響。
